Christophe Dolbeau is a former professor and historian. This article was first published in the French magazine Tabou (31, Editions Akribeia, 2024) —the original title of the essay in French is “Les femmes et l’Ordre Nouveau” (“Women in the New Order”). The translation into English for TOO was done by the author himself. The editing and some slight adaption of the text below was done by Tom Sunic.

For over a hundred years — since Benito Mussolini came to power in October 1922 — the holy alliance of socialists, communists, liberals, masons and progressives of all stripes has been endlessly repeating that nationalism, fascism and national-socialism were backward-looking, regressive regimes that severely oppressed the European population and particularly the fairer sex. If we were to take these post-World War II stories at face value, ii follows that these regimes were particularly resistant to the emancipation of women and women’s self-fulfillment, treating them as objects of significant oppression and derision. Accordingly, the depicted regimes were portrayed as polities attached to the traditional family and patriarchal values, fiercely hostile to abortion, unfavorable to women’s paid work, and opposed to their social or political advancement. The new Fascist Order, as the modern narrative goes, aimed at establishing a caricatured incarnation of the most regressive and misogynist Reaction.

Such a simplistic refrain coming from the Left (and the fake Right) is invariably accompanied by toxic denunciation of women who supported or condoned those hated regimes, and who, accordingly, are portrayed today as stupid or outright villainous creatures. All things considered, it must be pointed out that these allegations border more on propaganda than on honest and objective historical observations. Certainly, the constituent regimes and their partners, i.e., European collaborators of the New Order, were not free of defects. They also had little in common with the feminist or LGBT ideologies of the 21^st century. However, if we take into account the context and the mores of that time, there is no reason to suggest that those regimes had to be ashamed of the way in which they viewed and treated women. In order to better seize the spirit of this tragic European epoch, let us take a brief look at the status of women in several European countries during that troubled time.

Italy

Generale Piera Fondelli Gatteschi in 1944 (1902–1985)

With all due respect, let us begin with Italy, the first country to opt for radical change and that took a new path by embracing fascism. From the beginning of this upheaval, as seen at the famous Piazza San Sepolcro rally (March 23, 1919), women were present in the movement, as evidenced by the attendance of nine of them (1) at that famous gathering. The program adopted during that meeting called for the women’s right to vote and eligibility for all women. Shortly after, the first female fasci (fasci femminili) started springing up in the open: in 1920, Elisa Majer Rizzioli (1880–1930) (2) founded a fascio in Milan, while Elisa Savoia founded another in Monza. Other militants coming into the limelight included Olga Mezzomo Zannini in Padua, Marchioness Corinna Ginori-Lisci in Florence, and professor Laura Marani Argnani in Reggio Emilia. The initial struggle was harsh and sometimes even bloody. This did not prevent a few determined women from taking part in the struggle. Those deserving special mention include the nurse Luisa Zeni (1879–1964), Marchioness Margherita Incisa di Camerana (1879–1964), as well as Maria Bianchi and novelist Maria Vitali, who were both present alongside the poet Gabriele d’Annunzio in Fiume in September 1919 (now the city of Rijeka in Croatia) (3). Other women directly joined the ranks of the squadristi, like Cesarina Bresciani (Verona), Claudia Sironi and the journalist Fanny Dini. Ines Donati (1900–1924) would earn the honorary appellations of “La Capitana” (The Captainess) and even the Joan of Arc of fascism (4) for her role in fighting in the blue shirts of the Sempre pronti (5).

As soon as he took office, the Duce undertook profound nationwide reforms and immediately adopted various measures aimed at improving the wellbeing of women. It is with this aim in particular that the Work for the Protection of Motherhood and Childhood (Opera nazionale maternità e infanzia — ONMI) was born in 1925; its major concern being food-related and hygienic measures, while also initiating the opening of thousands of canteens and dispensaries under the name Casa della Madre e del Bambino (6). The same year, the right to vote in local elections was granted to Italian women. Little girls and adolescents were cared for by the Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB), and from 1937, by the Gioventù Italiana del Littorio. These national organizations divided their members according to their age; i.e., into Figlie della lupa (Daughters of the She-Wolf, for 6 to 8-year-olds), Piccole italiane (Little Italian girls, 8 to 14 years old), Giovanni italiane (Young Italian girls, 14 to 18 years old) and Giovanni fasciste (Young fascists, 18 to 21 years old). Older girls were assigned lessons in childcare, domestic finances and first aid. In 1939, there were more than 2.5 million girls and women in the youth movement (7). In April 1934, the Italian state also enacted a law on the employment of women and children, while prohibiting work at night and limiting the hours of daily work. Under the aegis of the women’s groups, the National Fascist Federation of Rural Housewives and the Section of Domestic Workers (SOLD) were also created. By 1943, the first of these two groups had more than 2.5 million members. These initiatives were of course attributable to experienced militants like the Sansepolcrista lady Regina Terruzzi (1862–1951) and the academic (mathematician) Annita Cemezzi Moretti.

At first professor, Angiola Moretti, a veteran of the Fiume affair, was in charge of the women’s groups, then, shortly after, a board of directors was estabhed and supervised by seven inspectors (8). It goes without saying that far from being marginalized or looked down upon, all of these women held a high rank in the party hierarchy. This was the case with Olga Modigliani, née Flaschel (9), who was a member of a ministerial cabinet. Even higher up in the hierarchy was Margherita Sarfatti (1880–1961), who directly advised the head of the government (she wrote a flattering biography of Mussolini, entitled Dux). Sarfatti was a journalist and art critic of Jewish origin who was close to Mussolini and worked as the editor of Gerarchia, an academic journal on fascist theory. This woman of letters would play a leading role in the fields of art (10) and political decision-making up until 1934. Moreover, and contrary to the modern legend, the regime did not seem particularly sexist or hostile to female intellectuals; several poets and novelists could express themselves freely and benefit from large republishing efforts. These include Ada Negri (Mussolini Prize in 1931 and first woman to enter the Italian Academy in 1940), Amalia Liana Negretti Odescalchi (aka Liala), a friend of D’Annunzio, Fortunata Morpurgo (aka Willy Dias), Flavia Steno, Amalia Guglielminetti, Grazia Deledda (Nobel Prize for Literature 1926) and Maria Assunta Volpi Nannipieri (aka Mura). In addition, many cultured women were to be found within the National Fascist Association of Women Artists and Graduates (ANFA) (11) or the Italian Cultural Women’s Alliance (Alleanza muliebre culturale italiana). As for the fascist women’s magazines (Rassegna femminile italiana ; La donna fascista ; La piccola italiana ; Vita femminile ; Giornale della donna ; Il Tricolore ; Gioventù fascista ; Giovinezza), all of them were run by a multitude of women columnists and journalists. Although the authorities officially favored the role of the housewife whose maternal mission was highly praised, it is no less true that Italian women asserted themselves and came to prominence in many other fields. One must mention the painter Benedetta Cappa (1897–1977), wife of the poet and writer Tomaso Marinetti, as well as the sculptors Lina Arpesini (1888–1974) and Lea d’Avanzo (1898–1975), with many of them being involved with important artistic exhibitions (12). For her part, the lady athlete Ondina Valla (1916–2006) became famous by bestowing Italy with its first women’s gold medal at the Berlin Olympic Games (August 1936).

Women could be even be found in uniform, especially towards the end of the war, during the time of the short–lived Italian Social Republic (RSI). At that time, nearly 6,000 young citizens joined the Women’s Volunteer Corps for the Auxiliary Services of the Republican Armed Forces (Corpo Femminile Volontario per i Servizi Ausiliari delle Forze Armate Repubblicane). More commonly called the Women’s Auxiliary Service (Servizio Ausiliario Femminile or SAF), this unit was commanded by Piera Gatteschi Fondelli (1902–1985), a former participant in the March on Rome, 1922, who held the rank of brigadier general. There were also nurses or « sorelline » of the Republican Red Cross, as well as recruits of the Republican National Guard, i.e. five detachments including three from the Opera Nazionale Balilla. In addition, some women fought in the Black Brigades (Brigate Nere); 300 others in the ranks of the Decima Mas (13) under the orders of Fede Arnaud Pocek (1920–1997) (14), and a few dozen more served in the Legione Volontari Italiani of the Waffen–SS under the orders of the Marchioness and tennis champion Wally Sandonnino (1910–1987). These women showed impeccable courage to the end of the war and without anyone or anything forcing them, as evidenced by high distinctions awarded to thirteen of them by the RSI, often posthumously (15). The fascist anticommunist resistance also had several fearless women, like Princess Maria Elia De Seta Pignatelli (1894-1968) who provided intelligence for the RSI on the movements of the oncoming Allied forces in southern Italy. When arrested by the British in 1944 and sentenced to twelve years in prison and interned in Riccione, she however managed to escape. She hid at Bishop Silverio Mattei’s location and soon launched the country’s first neo-fascist movement, the Italian Women’s Movement (Movimento italiano femminile — MIF).

To close the Italian chapter, let’s add that the post-war anti-fascist purges did not spare these women from antifascist revenge. “The great purge does not spare women,” wrote Paul Sérant (16). “In the region of Rome, approximately 7,000 women were massacred, another 5,000 thrown into prison and 20,000 were raped with their heads shaved.” Moreover, in Turin in 1945 around 400 women were drowned in the Po river. As for the military auxiliaries, several hundred of them were victims of assassinations, violence, rapes and reprisals against their families…

Germany

Hanna Reitsch (1912–1979)

In Germany in 1933 the majority of voters were women. They chose the path to the New Order by bringing Adolf Hitler and the National-Socialist Party (NSDAP) to power. The authoritarian and even totalitarian new Third Reich, contrary to what is often said, was not hostile to women. Rather, it recognized and celebrated women’s fundamental role in the preservation of the race. Similar to Italian fascism, the new regime put in place countless structures designed to ensure the health and well-being of mothers and children. Special benefits were distributed; Mother’s Day was institutionalized on August 12; while a medal was put in place in order to honor the mothers of more than four children, known as the German Mother’s Cross of Honor (Ehrenkreuz der Deutschen Mutter).

In fact, national-socialism benefitted from the active support of many women as soon as it appeared on the political scene. Among the most influential women let us mention Princess Elsa Bruckmann (1865–1946), who was of Romanian origin, Hélène Bechstein (1876–1951), Gertrud von Seidlitz, Baroness Elisabeth Hermine “Lily” von Abegg (1910–1974), Viktoria von Dirksen (1874–1946), Käthe Bierbaumer (1884–1943), Baroness Sigrid von Laffert (1916–2002) and Mathilde Ludendorff (1877–1966), the wife of General Ludendorff. Their contribution, particularly the financial one, was not negligible. Without directly joining the NSDAP, other women, often from nationalist circles, also contributed to the growth of the National-Socialist Party. Elsbeth Zander (1888–1963), for example, established rest facilities for SA members and launched a newspaper (Opferdienst der Deutschen Frau) which was favorable to the Hitler movement. For her part, the educator Guida Diehl (1868–1961) founded an association (200,000 members) favorable to national-socialism. Among rank-and-file militants one must single out the novelist Marie Diers (1867–1949) and former deputies Margarete Behm (1860–1929) and Clara Mende (1869–1947), the teacher and feminist Käthe Schirmacher (1865–1930), Elisabeth Spohr and the educator Martha Voss Zietz. Long before coming to power, the party itself and its subsidiary groups had several thousand female members. The most intriguing among them was Eleonore Baur, aka “Sister Pia” (1885–1981), an long-time member of the NSDAP. As a former nurse in the Oberland Free Corps, she had taken part in the November putsch of 1923 and was decorated with the Blood Order (Blutorden). In 1931, the National-Socialist Women’s League or NS-Frauenschaft (NSF) came to birth, boasting 109,000 members by 1932, and whose number would grow to ten million members by 1939. First chaired by Lydia Gottschweski (1931–1934), the League was subsequently managed by Gertrud Scholtz-Klink (1902–1999), who would remain its chairwoman until 1945. Far from holding a subordinate position, this Reichsfrauenführerin was one of the highest dignitaries of the regime. Other female institutions of the Reich were the Deutsches Frauenwerk (DFN) i.e., German Women’s Work, which was founded in 1933 by Rudolf Hess, and the Bund Deutscher Mädel (BDM) or the League of German Girls. The first of these groups, which would have up to 1.7 million affiliates, was focused on training mothers (in pediatrics, home finances, etc.). The second group (4.5 million members in 1938) was committed to the education and harmonious development of young female citizens of the Reich. It was directed first by the former postmistress Trude Mohr (1902–1989) and then by Dr Jutta Rüdiger (1910–2001), who was a psychologist by profession. Of course, both the adult and youth movements had their own press outlets, namely the NS-Frauen-Warte (1.9 million copies in 1939) for the NSF, and Das Deutsche Mädel for the BDM. There were also other important publications designed for women, such as the Deutsche Frauen-Zeitung, Die Junge Dame and Die Frau.

Gertrud Scholtz-Klink (1902–1999)

German women were in no way marginalized as shown by their being closely associated with the life of the country. In 1933, 36 percent of them were employed and by 1944 their number reached 53 percent. In 1936, more than 1.5 million women were working in the industrial sector. Many were active in the ranks of the National-Socialist Business Cell Organization or Nationalsozialistische Betriebszellenorganization (NSBO), and later in the Labor Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront — DAF). After leaving the BDM, the youngest women could join the BDM Werk Glaube und Schönheit (BDM — Society for Faith and Beauty) which served as a link to the Women’s League (NSF). All of them were required, just like young males, to perform labor service (Frauenarbeitsdienst), with young girls also participating from 1941 onwards in the Service for the War Effort (Kriegshilfsdienst — KHD). The most skillful among them were selected to attend the BDM executive schools and even the Napola, a sort of boarding school of excellence which trained the future executives for the nation (17). The state did not fail to honor some remarkable women. The most famous was undoubtedly Magda Goebbels (1901–1945) who played the role of the first lady of the Reich. Let us also mention the filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl (1902–2003) (18), the architect Gerdy Troost (1904–2003) (19), the sopranos Elisabeth Schwarzkopf (1915–2006) and Margarete Slezak (1901–1956), the short story writers and poets Agnes Miegel (1879–1964) and Ina Seidel (1885–1974), as well as the concert pianist Elly Ney (1882–1968). Margarete Gussow was entrusted with the flattering position of academic chair of astronomy while other women received laudatory distinctions such as becoming recipients of the prestigious Goethe medal for art and science (20). Several actresses and artists enjoyed the favors of those in power who in turn ensured their promotion nationwide; this was the case, for example, with the singers Lale Andersen (1905–1972) and Zarah Leander (1907–1981), as well as the movie stars, Marika Rökk (1913–2004), Brigitte Horney (1911–1988), Paula Wessely (1907–2000), Kristina Söderbaum (1912–2001) and Czech–born Lida Baarová (1914–2000).

Being present in all sectors of the country’s activity, the women of the Reich were also active in the army where their contribution was crucial throughout the Second World War. With a workforce estimated at nearly 500,000 volunteers, these Wehrmachthelferinnen or “Wehmracht helpers” (the French called them “gray mice” (because of their gray uniform) were to be mainly found in health service, offices, radio transmission service and logistical units, but also in the anti-aircraft defense (Reichsluftschutzbund and Flakbehelfspersonal). Among these female soldiers some stand out in particular. The best known of all was undoubtedly the aviatrix Hanna Reitsch (1912–1979), a test pilot and Flugkapitän of the Luftwaffe. Having tested the first helicopter and the first jet aircraft, Reitsch was decorated with the 1st class Iron Cross and with the pilot-observer badge in gold with diamonds. Other heroines of this era included the aviatrix Melitta Schenk von Stauffenberg (1903–1945) (21), also a test pilot and Flugkapitän, who would receive the 2nd class Iron Cross as well as the pilot-observer badge in gold with diamonds. She was shot down by an Allied fighter jet on April 8, 1945. Among the nurses, several women distinguished themselves with exceptional courage and dedication; we can only mention here Else Großmann, awarded the Iron Cross 1st class, and Elfriede Wnuk (1916–1999), Iron Cross 2nd class and silver badge of the wounded (after having had one of her legs amputated). But there were dozens and dozens of other women. Besides, even if we leave aside harmful consequences of the war itself, it would be wrong to say that German women of that period were subject to any form of male harassment in the New Order regime. It is certainly commendable to reject National Socialism and even condemn its objectives and methods, but it is totally unfounded to view it as a system oppressing and mistreating women. In general (22), most women behaved rather honorably and even showed great bravery, self-sacrifice and great resilience. Despite all the losses suffered at the end of the conflict (including hundreds of thousands of rapes committed by the victors), it was the German women who rebuilt the country following World War II.

Notes:

(*) In order to avoid any unfortunate misunderstanding, let us make it clear that in this text we evoke the general attitude of the supporters of the New Order toward women. We are fully aware that the regimes, parties and movements described here often pursued an extremely repressive and even murderous policy against certain women (Israelites, Gypsies, communists, resistance fighters). The reason that we are not addressing this issue lies in the fact that it does not fall within the scope of this study. In fact, these women were not persecuted because they were women, but because they were Israelites, Gypsies, communists or resistance fighters — which in our opinion relates to an entirely different aspect of the New Order.

Go to Part 2.

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(1) Namely Giselda Brebbia; Luisa Rosalia Dentici; Maria Bianchi, widow Nascimbeni; Fernanda Ghelfi Peyrani; Paolina Piolti De Bianchi; Cornelia Mastrangelo Stefanini; Ines Norsa Tedeschi; Regina Terruzzi; and Gina Tinozzi.

(2) Elisa Majer Rizzioli had been a nurse in Libya, under the orders of the Duchess of Aosta, and then during the Great War.

(3) “Some,” writes Denise Detragiache, “are part of the armed female groups who entered the city with the legionnaires and wear the black shirt of the arditi and the “Roman” dagger. The Sansepolcrist Maria Nascimbeni, “volunteer sergeant of the Black Flames”  is one of them.”  Cf.  “Le fascisme féminin, 1919–1925” (Female fascism, 1919–1925), in Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 30, no. 3 (1983): 366–400, 372.

(4) On February 18, 1921, she publicly slapped the socialist deputy Alceste Della Seta.

(5) The Sempre Pronti per la Patria e per il Re was a paramilitary group created in 1919 by the Italian Nationalist Association. In 1923, it joined the Voluntary Militia for National Security (MVSN).

(6) See. M. Missiroli, Ce que l’Italie doit à Mussolini (What Italy owes to Mussolini), Editions de Novissima, Roma, 1942, p. 105.

(7) Ibid, p. 182.

(8) Namely Angiola Moretti (a teacher and a veteran of Fiume), Clara Franceschini, Giuditta Stelluti Scala Frescara (a nurse and a pediatrician), Wanda Bruschi Gorjux (a journalist), Laura Marani Argnani, Teresita Menzinger Ruata and the Marchioness Olga Medici del Vascello.

(9) A former feminist of Jewish origin.

(10) She was at the origin of the so-called Novecento movement and France named her a member of the international jury at the Decorative Arts Exhibition in October 1925.

(11) For example, Adelina Pertici Pontecorvo (1888–1981), first female notary in Italy, or the mathematician and statistician Maria Castellani (1896).

(12) In 1941, the Almanacco della Donna lists 693 professional artists present in official events.

(13) Combat swimmers’ unit of the Royal Italian Navy, then special detachment of the RSI Navy commanded by Prince Junio Valerio Borghese (1906–1974). In 1943–1945, the Press and Propaganda Office of this elite unit was headed by a woman, Pasca Piredda (1916–2009).

(14) After the war, she will become a screenwriter and dubbing director for cinema and television.

(15) These women include Franca Barbier, Maria Garzena and Angelina Milazzo who received posthumously the gold medal for military valor, Silvia Polettini, who received, again posthumously, the silver medal for military valor, and Marietta Togna who received the bronze medal.

(16) See. Paul Sérant, Les vaincus de la Libération (The Vanquished of the Liberation), Robert Laffont, Paris, 1964, pp. 282 and 285.

(17) Designated under the name of Nationalpolitischen Erziehunganstalten (NPEA) or Nationalpolitischen LehrAnstalten — Napola, there are 33 schools in 1942, including 3 reserved for girls. A list of some male alumni of these establishments can be found on: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalpolitische_Erziehungsanstalt..

(18) Director of the movies Sieg des Glaubens (1933), Triumph des Willens (1934) and Olympia (1936) among others.

(19) Gerdy Troost was entrusted with prestigious projects, such as Haus der Kunst, Königsplatz and Ehrentempel.

(20) Namely the Wagnerian soprano Anna Bahr-Mildenburg (1872–1947), the Austrian actress Hedwig Bleibtreu (1868–1958), the gynecologist Agnes Bluhm (1862–1943), already holder of the silver Leibnitz medal, the poet Isolde Kurz (1853–1944), and the poet Lulu von Strauss und Torney (1873–1956).

(21) She was the sister-in-law of Claus von Stauffenberg (1907–1944), main perpetrator of the July 20, 1944 assassination attempt on Adolf Hitler.

(22) It goes without saying that our assessment does not apply to the camp guards. Besides, 3,600 of these female guards are absolutely not representative of German women — the Reich in fact had 41.7 million women in 1939, and as for the members of the National Socialist Women’s League (NSF), there were 10 million at the same time. At most, we can consider these Aufseherinnen (guards) as symptomatic of the appalling level of prison staff (they were often recruited through classified ads) and of the criminal excesses in the Nazi concentration camp apparatus.